Indian and Western
Theories of Knowledge
1. Traditional
Indian Schools of Philosophy and the Theories of Knowledge They Advanced
1.1 Traditional Indian Schools of Philosophy
- Indian
philosophy is broadly classified into:
1. Orthodox
(Āstika) – Accept the authority of the Vedas.
§ Further
divided into:
§ Schools
directly based on the Vedic texts.
§ Schools
that accept the Vedas but develop independent reasoning.
2. Heterodox
(Nāstika) – Reject the authority of the Vedas.
1.2 Sources of Knowledge (Pramāṇas)
The Indian epistemological tradition recognizes six main
sources of valid knowledge:
1. Perception
(Pratyakṣa)
o Literally
means “that which is before the eyes.”
o Knowledge
through direct sensory contact with an object.
o One of
the three principal means of knowledge (with Anumāna and Śabda).
o Types:
§ External
(through senses)
§ Internal
(mental perception)
2. Inference
(Anumāna)
o Deriving
knowledge from reasoning and observation.
o Example:
Observing smoke and inferring fire.
o Consists
of five logical steps:
1.
Pratijñā –
Hypothesis/proposition
2.
Hetu – Reason
3.
Udāharaṇa –
Example
4.
Upanaya –
Application/reaffirmation
5.
Nigamana – Conclusion
3. Verbal
Testimony (Śabda)
o Accepting
knowledge from authoritative sources (especially the Vedas).
o Mimāṃsā
school: Authoritativeness applies strictly to scriptural statements (Āptavākya).
o Vedānta:
Extends authority to supersensory truths like Brahman.
o Nyāya:
Accepts both divine and human testimony, but considers only the Vedas
infallible.
o Buddhism
and Jainism: Reject Vedic authority but rely on the testimony of their own
enlightened teachers.
4. Comparison
(Upamāna)
o Understanding
something unknown by comparing it with something known.
o Example:
Recognizing a wild cow (Gavaya) based on prior description by comparing
with a domestic cow.
5. Presupposition
(Arthāpatti)
o Knowledge
derived from circumstances or necessary assumptions.
o Similar
to circumstantial implication in logic.
o Example:
If a person is alive but not at home during the day, we presume he is outside.
6. Non-Apprehension
(Anupalabdhi)
o Knowledge
of non-existence through non-perception.
o Example:
Knowing there is no pot on the floor by not perceiving it there.
o According
to Dharmakīrti (Buddhist philosopher), it is the positive assertion of a
negative fact.
Recognition of Pramāṇas by
Indian Schools
- Nyāya:
Pratyakṣa, Anumāna, Upamāna, Śabda (4 sources)
- Sāṅkhya:
Pratyakṣa, Anumāna, Śabda (3 sources)
- Vedānta:
All six sources
- Mīmāṃsā:
All six + emphasis on Arthāpatti and Anupalabdhi
- Yoga:
Pratyakṣa, Anumāna, Śabda (3 sources)
- Cārvāka:
Only Pratyakṣa (rejects inference and testimony)
2. Important
Western Schools of Philosophy and Theories of Knowledge
2.1 Modern Schools of Western Philosophy
1. Idealism
o Mind/spirit
is the ultimate reality.
o Physical
world is only a reflection of the mind.
o Believes
in a priori knowledge (pre-existing truths).
o Truth
is subjective—depends on the perceiver’s intellect.
o Knowledge
comes from inner intuition, not just senses.
2. Naturalism
o Ultimate
reality is matter, not mind.
o Emphasizes
empirical knowledge—knowledge through experience.
o Senses
are the gateways to knowledge.
o Science
and observation are primary tools of knowledge acquisition.
o Knowledge
is provisional—subject to refinement as science advances.
3. Realism
o Physical
world exists independently of the mind.
o Objects
are as they appear; senses capture their real attributes.
o Empirical
knowledge is valid; reasoning and verification correct errors.
o Emphasizes
analysis and logical reasoning.
4. Pragmatism
o Reality
is shaped by human experience.
o Knowledge
evolves through interaction with the environment.
o True
knowledge is that which works in practice.
o Action
precedes knowledge; learning is a continuous process.
2.2 Sources of Knowledge in Western Philosophy
- Sense
Experience – Empirical knowledge
- Reason
– Rational knowledge
- Experimentation
– Scientific method
- Authority
– Trusted sources
- Intuition
– Immediate, instinctive understanding
- Revealed
Faith Knowledge – Religious/spiritual revelation
3. Comparison
Between Indian and Western Philosophies of Knowledge
|
Aspect |
Indian
Philosophies |
Western
Philosophies |
|
View of Mind vs. Matter |
Mind/spirit often supreme (Idealism-like). |
Idealism aligns; Naturalism/Realism prioritize matter. |
|
Sources of Knowledge |
Multiple pramāṇas: perception, inference,
testimony, comparison, presupposition, non-apprehension. |
Sense perception, reason, experimentation, authority,
intuition, revelation. |
|
Empirical Knowledge |
Important but not sole source; also value intuition,
authority, revelation. |
Central in Naturalism and Realism; less so in Idealism. |
|
Approach to Truth |
Often absolute, eternal (esp. Vedānta, Mimāṃsā). |
Pragmatism: truth is evolving; Realism/Naturalism: truth
verified empirically. |
Summary:
- Eastern
thought – Sense impressions are not the only
source; intuition, reasoning, authority, and divine revelation are equally
valid.
- Western
thought – Strong emphasis on sensory perception
and empiricism, except in Idealism, which parallels certain Indian
schools.
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